In the 1840s, as Western global expansion extended into the Far East, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States successively entered the South China Sea. Various navigational publications from that era documented Chinese fishermen who had long lived and worked on the islands and reefs of the South China Sea. 

For instance, page 378 of the 1915 Asiatic Pilot, published by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, recorded that Chinese fishermen from Hainan frequently traveled by northeast monsoon to Xiyue Island (West York Island) to harvest sea cucumbers, and that three graves and an old iron cannon were found on the island.

Similar accounts appeared in the navigational literature of the United Kingdom and Japan, illustrating the earliest Western understanding of the islands and reefs in the South China Sea: that Chinese fishermen inhabited, lived, and worked on the Southwest Sand Islands.

According to the logic of international law as understood by Western colonial powers at the time, indigenous lands lacking “administrative governance” or flags planted by them to claim "occupation" were considered terra nullius. In the 1930s, France, based on this logic, attempted to occupy nine islets in China's Nansha Qundao, even though upon landing, they witnessed Chinese fishermen living and working on the islands, having built houses, shrines, wells, and cultivated the land.

(Photographs published in the French magazine L'Illustration in 1933 showing Chinese fisherman Peng Zhengkai playing a two-stringed bowed instrument Erhu and a shed constructed by Chinese fishermen on the island)

In 1930 and 1933, France dispatched naval vessels to land on the nine islets in the Nansha Qundao on two separate occasions. Ignoring the reality of Chinese residents living on the islands, France illegally declared the incorporation of the Nansha Qundao into its administrative jurisdiction. Chinese fishermen on the islands rose up in resistance, and a wave of protests erupted from various social organizations and institutions within China. This event became known historically as the "Nine Islets Incident."

On August 4, 1933, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China sent a note to the French side, requesting the names and geographical locations of the islands and reserving China's rights. The Guangdong Government Committee stated that the nine islets were inhabited only by Chinese and were unquestionably Chinese territory, and ordered Chen Youren to handle the matter. On August 15, Chen Youren submitted a protest note to the French Consul.

The United States Explicitly Stated that the Nansha Qundao Were Not Part of the Philippine Territory

Regarding the sovereignty over the nine islets of the Nansha Qundao, Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, and others launched internal investigations driven by strategic and economic interests in the South China Sea.

Japan, coveting China's Nansha Qundao, refused to recognize France's sovereign claims and insisted on its own rights over the Nansha Qundao. British legal officials concluded that the United Kingdom had never effectively occupied these islands and reefs and did not consider France's occupation of the relevant islands as meeting the requirements of international law. The U.S. government explicitly stated that the Nansha Qundao lay outside the scope of the Philippine Islands under its jurisdiction.

(The Philippine border drawn in the Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islands of the United States of America, published in 1902, clearly places Huangyan Dao outside the border line.)

Declassified archives reveal that on August 12, 1933, former Philippine Senator Isabelo de los Reyes wrote to the U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines, claiming that the archipelago was only a few miles southwest of Palawan Island and asserting that these islands were part of the Philippine archipelago. On October 9 of the same year, the U.S. Secretary of State replied, stating, "These islands... are far outside the limits of the Philippine Islands acquired by the United States from Spain in 1898."

A Japanese archival document from 1933 also accurately recorded the U.S. government's stance. On November 11, Japanese Consul in Manila Kimura reported to Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki that the U.S. Department of State had indicated: according to Article III of the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the nine islets of the Nansha Qundao lie outside the external boundaries of the Philippine Islands and cannot be considered U.S. territory.

In May 1935, a memorandum from the Office of the Historical Adviser of the U.S. Department of State stated, "It is clear that the United States has no basis for claiming that the islands in question form part of the Philippine Islands." On August 20, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull replied to U.S. Secretary of War George Dern, stating that "the islands acquired by the United States from Spain under the treaty of 1898 are limited to those within the boundaries defined in Article III" and regarding the relevant islands of the Nansha Qundao, "it is to be noted that there is no indication that Spain ever exercised sovereignty over or made claim to any of these islands."

China’s Recovery of the Nanhai Zhudao Met No Objection from the U.S.

During World War II, the Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao were occupied by Japan. The Xisha Qundao was nominally under the ownership of China's Guangdong Province but was effectively controlled by Japan. The main islands and reefs of the Nansha Qundao were incorporated by Japan in 1939 as the "Shinnan Gunto" and placed under the jurisdiction of Takao City, Takao Prefecture, Governor-General of Taiwan. As part of the international anti-fascist war, after arduous and extraordinary efforts in the War of Resistance against Japan, on August 15, 1945, Japan announced its unconditional surrender. On September 2, Japan signed the instrument of surrender.

According to the 1943 Cairo Declaration and the 1945 Potsdam Proclamation, which possess the force of international law, the territories illegally seized by Japan must be returned. The recovery of lost territories was thus placed on the agenda of the Chinese government.

(On October 25, 1945, the Chinese government formally declared the "resumption of the exercise of sovereignty over Taiwan" and held the "Surrender Ceremony of the Taiwan Province of the China Theater" in Taipei.)

On October 25, 1945, the surrender ceremony for the Taiwan region was held, and Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were formally reintegrated into China's territory. During the Japanese occupation, the Governor-General of Taiwan had administered the Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao. In April 1946, the Office of the Chief Executive reported to the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China government, suggesting that Taiwan Province take over the South China Sea islands.

After internal deliberation within the Republic of China government, it was decided to place the  the South China Sea islands under the jurisdiction of the Guangdong Provincial Government, which would temporarily take over the Dongsha Qundao, Xisha Qundao, and Nansha Qundao. On September 13, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of National Defense, the Ministry of the Interior, and the Navy Headquarters held a meeting and decided that the Ministry of National Defense would assist the Guangdong Provincial Government in expediting the takeover.

Due to the proximity of the Nansha Qundao to the Philippines, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs telegraphed the Consulate General in Manila, hoping that the Consulate would coordinate with U.S. forces to assist in the takeover. On June 11, 1946, the Consulate replied, stating that the U.S. side indicated that "the islands releted to Taiwan, are not under its jurisdiction" and advised the Chinese government to negotiate with the then Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan, MacArthur.

The U.S. considered the Nansha Qundao as "islands in the Taiwan Sea area" because during the Japanese occupation, Japan had named part of the Nansha Qundao the "Shinnan Gunto" and placed it under the jurisdiction of Takao City, Takao Prefecture. On June 14, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs telegraphed Zhu Shiming, the Chinese representative in Japan, requesting him to negotiate with the Supreme Commander for the Allied Power, MacArthur, so that MacArthur could instruct the U.S. headquarters in the Philippines to provide nearby assistance for the takeover.

Based on subsequent actual events, U.S. forces did not directly assist in the takeover, but it is evident that the U.S. side was aware of the Chinese government's takeover of the islands in the South China Sea. The U.S. side was also aware of China's stationing of troops on the islands after recovering them. In January 1949, when the U.S. side went to Taiping Island to search for remains of a downed U.S. military aircraft, they were received and assisted by the garrison on Taiping Island.
 

The Attitude of the U.S. Government Toward Sovereignty Over the Nanhai Zhudao after World War II

After World War II, as part of constructing the post-war international order, the United States took the lead in concluding a peace treaty with Japan, ensuring Japan's return of occupied territories of other countries. 

On February 28, 1946, the Post-War Planning Committee of the Policy Committee of the U.S. Department of State produced a document titled "Disposition of the Spratly Islands" (Nansha Qundao), which revealed the U.S. position that it "has never advanced a claim to the Spratly Islands either for itself or for the Philippines." However, driven by geopolitical interests, preventing "Communist China" from acquiring sovereignty over the Xishan Qundao and Nansha Qundao was the primary consideration for the United States.

(The monument to China's recovery of the Xisha Qundao, located on Yongxing Island, Sansha City, Hainan Province, China.)

In the various drafts of the peace treaty formulated by the parties, the attribution of territories Japan had abandoned that were seized from China was not explicitly stated. Regarding this, in August 1951, Chinese Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai issued a "Statement on the US-British Draft Treaty of Peace with Japan and the San Francisco Conference," pointing out: "The Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao, like the entire Nansha Qundao, Zhongsha Qundao, and Dongsha Qundao, have always been Chinese territory. Although they were once occupied during the war of aggression launched by Japanese imperialism, they were fully taken over by the then Chinese government after Japan's surrender." He further stated, "The People's Republic of China's inviolable sovereignty over Nansha Qundao and Xisha Qundao shall not be affected in any way, regardless of whether the US-British draft treaty of peace with Japan contains provisions on this matter or how it is stipulated."

Because the United States prevented "Communist China" from participating in the San Francisco Peace Conference, the Chinese government was unable to attend. In September 1951, the parties signed the Treaty of Peace with Japan in San Francisco. Article 2 of the treaty explicitly states, "Japan renounces all right, title and claim to the Spratly Islands (Nansha Qundao) and to the Paracel Islands (Xisha Qundao)," but it does not explicitly state the recipient of this renunciation.

In 1952, under pressure from the United States, the Japanese government concluded a so-called "Peace Treaty" with the Taiwan authorities in Taipei. Its Article 2 states: "It is recognized that under Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace with Japan signed at the city of San Francisco in the United States of America on September 8, 1951, Japan has renounced all right, title, and claim to Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) as well as the Spratly Islands (Nansha Qundao) and the Paracel Islands (Xisha Qundao)." 

Although this treaty is illegal and void, it clearly indicates the Japanese government's stance: that Japan renounced the Xisha Qundao and The Nansha Qundao  in favor of China. In 1952, the Standard Atlas of the World, specifically Map No. 15 "Southeast Asia," recommended with a personal signature by then Japanese Foreign Minister Okazaki Katsuo, depicted the Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao, which Japan was required to renounce under the treaty, along with the Dongsha Qundao and Zhongsha Qundao, all as belonging to China. In many subsequent Japanese public publications and maps, similar representations were consistently used.

In the volume 21 of the Encyclopedia of the World (Heibonsha, 1958), the attached map of "Southeast Asia" labels China's islands in the South China Sea as "Dongsha Zhudao," "Zhongsha Zhudao," "Xisha Zhudao," and "Nansha Zhudao," respectively.

Subsequent actions by the U.S. government demonstrated its recognition and respect for China's ownership of the South China Sea islands.

In October 1955, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) held a meeting in Manila. Representatives from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines, South Vietnam, and the Taiwan authorities of China attended. The representative from the Philippines served as the meeting's chairman, and the French representative served as vice chairman. The meeting adopted Resolution No. 24, which requested the Taiwan authorities of China to enhance meteorological observations on the Nansha Qundao. All representatives at the meeting, including those from the United States and the Philippines, raised no objections or reservations to this resolution.

In August 1956, U.S. military personnel sought to conduct topographic surveys on the Huangyan Dao (Scarborough Shoal), Shuangzi Qunjiao (North Danger Reefs), Jinghong Dao (Sin Cowe Island), Hongxiu Dao (Namyit Island), Nanwei Dao (Spratly Island), and other islands and reefs of the Zhongsha Qundao and Nansha Qundao. Mr. West, First Secretary of the U.S. agency in Taiwan, applied to the Taiwan authorities in advance and received their approval. 

In December 1960, the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) wrote to the defense authorities of the Taiwan authorities of China, “request[ing] permission to visit North Danger, Sin Cowe and Spratly” for conducting field surveys. The Taiwan authorities approved these requests and notified the garrison on Taiping Island.
 

Perception of the Nanhai Zhudao in American society 

Furthermore, numerous U.S. public publications and statements by political figures also indirectly reflect the understanding within American society regarding the sovereignty over the i South China Sea islands.

The Encyclopedia of Nations (Asia and Australasia volume), edited by Moshe Sachs and published by the Wildmac Press in the United States in 1967, stated: "The People's Republic of China also includes a number of islands, such as the reefs and islands in the South China Sea extending to 4° N. latitude. These islands and banks include the Dongsha, Xisha , Zhongsha, and Nansha Islands."

Regarding the Battle of the Xisha Qundao in January 1974, in which China expelled the South Vietnamese aggressors and fully controlled the Xisha Qundao, the U.S. magazine The Guardian published an article on February 20, 1974, titled "China's Paracel Islands Under Aggression." The article stated: "Saigon's claim to the Paracel and Spratly Islands is unpersuasive to most informed international legal opinion, and to the cartographers who draw the lines based on such opinion. Standard reference works and atlases—including those in the U.S.—show both island groups as part of China." It further noted, "Chinese sovereignty over these islands is generally recognized in international reference books."
 

On April 2, 1974, Senator Mike Mansfield of Montana, who had previously served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan, stated in a declaration recommending "most-favored-nation" status for the People's Republic of China: "Taiwan, the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyu Dao), which are in dispute between Japan and the People's Republic, and the Spratly Islands (Nansha Qundao) and the Paracel Islands (Xisha Qundao)—all of these are claimed by the People's Republic. And it seems to me that, on the basis of historical precedent, their claims to all of these are very sound."

In the Rand McNally Illustrated Atlas of the World published in 1982, Map No. 26 "Southeast Asia" clearly marked the locations of the Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao with pinyin labels "XISHAQUNDAO" and "NANSHA QUNDAO," with "China" annotated in parentheses below each.

A partial map from World Atlas: Southeast Asia, published by Rand McNally in 1982 and reprinted in 1987 (fifth printing).

For a long period, we have not observed U.S. public publications or statements from U.S. political figures indicating that the Nansha Qundao and Huangyan Dao are Philippine territory, or explicitly supporting Vietnam's sovereignty claims over the Xisha Qundao and Nansha Qundao.

However, by the 1970s, driven by strategic interests, the U.S. government, while not directly supporting them, effectively acquiesced in the occupation of some islands and reefs in the Nansha Qundao by Vietnam and the Philippines.

The interplay of these multiple factors led to the emergence of the South China Sea issue, with the dispute over sovereignty over the Nansha Qundao at its core. Subsequently, driven by interests, the U.S. value orientation increasingly diverged from the facts. After its "Return to Asia" in 2009, the South China Sea became a tool for the U.S. to pressure China, and the United States has become one of the sources of false narratives regarding the South China Sea.

Looking back at history from today's perspective, government policies may contradict themselves, and public memory may gradually fade. However, objective historical records, regardless of how much time has passed, can still reveal to us the facts and the truth that were once obscured by narrow interests and political manipulation.

(Author: Liu Yanhua, Associate Research Fellow, National Institute for South China Sea Studies.)